making potassium (per) chlorate

[sefrez]

Well, I was just thinking for potassium perchlorate... The sodium perchlorate cell (consisting traditionally primarily as sodium chlorate and its conversion product sodium perchlorate), what about loading it with the lower soluble potassium chlorate?

 

The sodium chlorate would serve as the primary means of chlorate for oxidation to perchlorate, and the lesser soluble potassium chlorate would precipitate the correspondingly highly insoluble perchlorate replenishing chlorates.

 

There are at least three issues I see with this.

 

1) You would need, at least most, of the KClO3 to be converted over so that collected crystals of KClO4 do not contain crystalline KClO3 (the issue being knowing when this has been met.)

2) Agitation. KClO4 would probably form around the crystalline KClO3 shielding it from solution if it is not mixed.

3) KClO4 may cover the anode hindering electrolysis.

 

I think 3 would be the biggest issue. I think these issues make it too complicated...

 

Still, I don't think it would be that much of an issue to put KClO3 into the, say half, conversion point of NaClO4 to precipitate KClO4. This should return the cell solution back to approximately the initial conditions. Basically, NaClO3 is the "catalyst" and KClO3 (and H2O) is that consumed to produce the output, KClO4:

 

(NaClO3)aq + O -> (NaClO4)aq

(KClO3)aq + (NaClO4)aq -> KClO4 + (NaClO3)aq

 

Together: (KClO3)aq + (NaClO3)aq + O -> KClO4 + (NaClO3)aq

Net: KClO3 + O -> KClO4

 

Obviously, the "O" here is merely representing the overall process for the oxidation of ClO3- to ClO4- and comes from H2O. Hydrogen gas is also a product if you want to get pedantic about it.

 

 

Solved the issue for myself with regenerable DIY Pt plated anodes. Let it run quietly until it is as good as it gets and farewell to the anode after about 2-3 full conversions. Regenerate the anode (make a new one) and repeat if neccessary. All the other options like selective recristallisation or selective solvent separation are just an unreasonable amount of work that I have no inclination to engage in

 

Is that a difficult process? I've plated nickel, but haven't the slightest clue how to plate platinum. Please enlighten me with your knowledge or point me in the direction to be enlightened.

Edited July 21, 2020 by sefrez

[markx]

https://www.amateurpyro.com/forums/topic/13235-platinized-titanium-anodes/

 

It is not electroplating, but rather thermal decomposition and deposition.....electroplating Pt is not a simple process and the losses shall be greater in comparison to the thermal approach.

 

 

Direct electrochemical formation of KClO4 on the aforementioned Pt electrode in a small test cell:

 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zD9PlBT1laM

Edited July 21, 2020 by markx

[sefrez]

I guess all I need then is some pure platinum and some pure titanium metal... I made a little nitric acid a while ago, and have a lot of HCl. So an aqua regia solution should be easy to do. I am a bit concerned about hazardous material going in the air and being deposited in my homemade kiln though. Keeping the solution of skin / eye's, etc. isn't a real problem. I never got around to putting a temperature controller on the kiln, but due to its heat capacity and ceramic wool insulation, I should be able to have it in a 600C range for 10 minutes.

 

Assuming that test cell is yours, is that potassium salts only?

 

Thanks for the info.

[markx]

I guess all I need then is some pure platinum and some pure titanium metal... I made a little nitric acid a while ago, and have a lot of HCl. So an aqua regia solution should be easy to do. I am a bit concerned about hazardous material going in the air and being deposited in my homemade kiln though. Keeping the solution of skin / eye's, etc. isn't a real problem. I never got around to putting a temperature controller on the kiln, but due to its heat capacity and ceramic wool insulation, I should be able to have it in a 600C range for 10 minutes.

 

Assuming that test cell is yours, is that potassium salts only?

 

Thanks for the info.

 

The test cell on the video contains saturated KClO3 solution only.....it was very impressive to observe the direct formation of the perchlorate salt on the anode, but for practical purposes it is more beneficial to work with the sodium species. Also I learned afterwards that it was in general deemed impossible to produce potassium perchlorate from the chlorate by direct electrochemical means. Worked well enough in my test....probably because I did not know that it was impossible :P

[WSM]

We seem to be on the same spectrum of thought.

I do believe as well that the low perchlorate (and chloride) levels cause more corrosion. (2) I actually smell what I believe to be ozone near the end of conversion. Creating that species at a higher level in the end (going by the fact I can't smell it in the beginning) may be part of the reason. It reminded me of electrolyzing sulfuric acid. Some ozone is produced there too.

Well, back a few years ago I was into flying RC helicopters. Not the little stuff (not the big stuff either,) but having a rotor/blade span of 1 meter. These helicopters run off of pretty high capacity with high current charge / discharges. So I invested in an "iCharger Duo". Its basically a sophisticated charging station that covers various battery types, including lithium polymer (the type used in RC heli's these days.) It can charge at up to 30A, records time, charge transfer, regulates current, voltage, etc. I've kind of rigged it up where I can "charge" my chlorate cell. So I have high current capabilities and details making the process easier to keep track of. I haven't looked at the output voltage of it with an oscilloscope yet. Maybe I should. In the event its not satisfactory, I wonder if I can put a smoother in between.

Indeed. Just (3) contradicts what is said about chlorides in chlorate cells, at least on the surface. Maybe a distinction in the processes can be made where the contradiction is remedied.

About how far have you taken the conversion? Say chlorate conversion proportion by mass or moles?

(1) Do you mean 0.15 A/cm^2? 1.5 A/cm^2 seems large! I've been running at about 0.15A/cm^2 myself.

Anyway, if full conversion to perchlorate is the main issue (meaning low chlorates and low chlorides,) perhaps a method to take off perchlorates somewhere before this is an issue should be done and that which remains recycled with chlorates replenished. Really, exactly the same process for chlorates, but instead of keeping chloride present to some threshold, its chlorates. One obvious way to do it is how I have already mentioned, remove water drying the salts, crushing well, and using acetone as a solvent for NaClO4 (of which both chlorate and chloride are hardly soluble.) But if you do this once you will never want to do it again. If you've tried removing H2O from NaClO4 to form the anhydrous NaClO4, you will understand this. The only two things it has over NaOH is that it wont eat your tissues or your glassware.

Another, easier way, would be crystallization. If enough chlorate can be converted, concentrating the solution could cause NaClO4 (monohydrate?) to crystalize out and you could pour of the solution for recycling. The crystals could then be processed further to what ever end. They would need to be stored in a impervious bottle as if air with moisture is able to get to it, it will turn into a puddle. No drying on a coffee filter is an option without serious perchlorate losses...

If potassium perchlorate is the end goal, I think the easiest way would be to selectively precipitate that by its low solubility. I think that could be done without pulling chlorate out as well if you deal in right amounts. Again, remaining solution would be reused by adding more pure NaClO3.

 

 

(1) Yes, you're absolutely right. I was re-reading another post where I made the same mistake, and, after quickly applying palm to forehead, posted a correction.

 

In my perchlorate experiments, I wanted to go easy on the electrodes so I ran them between 0.10 and 0.20 Amps per square cm.

 

(2) Ozone production happened throughout my perchlorate production. The output of O₃ was minimal due to the light current put through the electrodes, but definitely detectable at the cell vent.

 

(3) Chlorate cells struggle with low chlorides. Beyond a certain point, a lot more power is consumed to produce slightly more chlorate (a point of diminishing returns). In practice, when the current draw of the chlorate cell drops to roughly half the starting current, is when I stop the run, harvest the chlorate, replace the depleted chloride and run the cell some more (at least in a batch system; a continuous system is different).

 

I'll try to address some more of your questions later...

 

WSM

Edited July 22, 2020 by WSM

[WSM]

The test cell on the video contains saturated KClO3 solution only.....it was very impressive to observe the direct formation of the perchlorate salt on the anode, but for practical purposes it is more beneficial to work with the sodium species. Also I learned afterwards that it was in general deemed impossible to produce potassium perchlorate from the chlorate by direct electrochemical means. Worked well enough in my test....probably because I did not know that it was impossible :P

 

 

Years ago, Swede also made potassium perchlorate from potassium chlorate. His efforts were in an attempt to avoid sodium contamination of his final product.

 

Several notable pyrotechnists have flatly said that you can't make KClO₄ from KClO₃. That's not true, you can; it's just not practical. There are good reasons that industry makes KClO₄ from NaClO₄ and I've determined to follow that route also.

 

The first problem I encountered is a lack of sodium chlorate availability in my area, so I decided to pursue making it myself. After enough sodium chlorate is made, it's a straight forward process to electrolyse it into sodium perchlorate. The next step is to destroy residual chlorate in the NaClO₄ before converting it into KClO₄ by metathesis. Next comes rinsing sodium residues off of the potassium perchlorate, drying it and storing it for eventual use.

 

WSM

[sefrez]

Thanks WSM.

 

Yeah, I see the reasons for using NaClO4 to get KClO4. I see you said destroy chlorates before metathesis. I have been wondering all along if that could be done effectively with KClO4 given its low solubility. I guess also you only rinse rather than recrystallize. I have recrystallized, but it doesn't seem to be cost (or time) effective, and more product is lost. 100g of the perchlorate requires almost 0.5L of water (obviously distilled or better) if you want to do it all at once!

 

The only reason I started with recrystallization is because I was concerned about impurity inclusions in perchlorate crystal structures that would be separate from a rinse. I guess the way it crystalizes out doesn't have a lot of this going on.

[WSM]

Thanks WSM.

Yeah, I see the reasons for using NaClO4 to get KClO4. I see you said destroy chlorates before metathesis. I have been wondering all along if that could be done effectively with KClO4 given its low solubility. I guess also you only rinse rather than recrystallize. I have recrystallized, but it doesn't seem to be cost (or time) effective, and more product is lost. 100g of the perchlorate requires almost 0.5L of water (obviously distilled or better) if you want to do it all at once!

The only reason I started with recrystallization is because I was concerned about impurity inclusions in perchlorate crystal structures that would be separate from a rinse. I guess the way it crystalizes out doesn't have a lot of this going on.

 

 

You're welcome.

 

Looking at the relative solubilities, The chlorides of sodium and potassium are nearly equal; but, sodium perchlorate is roughly 100 times more soluble than potassium perchlorate. To soak the potassium perchlorate, using distilled water will actually dissolve very little KClO₄, at room temperature and much less when the water is chilled.

 

When I dropped KCl solution into my chlorate-free sodium perchlorate solution, it instantly dropped out fine white KClO₄ powder. I next vacuum filtered the fresh potassium perchlorate and rinsed it with chilled distilled water to remove sodium contamination. It was not very successful. When dried it still tested positive for sodium with a flame test.

 

I theorize that soaking the fresh potassium perchlorate in cold deionized water for a period of time before vacuum filtering would do better in removing soluble sodium contaminants in the mixture.

 

I still have a few liters of sodium perchlorate solution, I should test my theory and see how well (or if) it works.

 

WSM

[Arthur]

I once read that the industry mixes calculated amounts of KCl solution into the Na perc cell output, in tanks. The temperature of both liquors is critical to getting a fine enough product formed quickly enough that it doesn't co-precipitate the KPerc and also Na perc. The quantity of KCl is restricted so that about all of the K is used up and ppt out as salt so that the remaining liquors can be sent back into the process for re-use. This soln has then been loaded with chloride so that it can be returned for use as feed stock for the chlorate cell.

[WSM]

I once read that the industry mixes calculated amounts of KCl solution into the Na perc cell output, in tanks. The temperature of both liquors is critical to getting a fine enough product formed quickly enough that it doesn't co-precipitate the KPerc and also Na perc. The quantity of KCl is restricted so that about all of the K is used up and ppt out as salt so that the remaining liquors can be sent back into the process for re-use. This soln has then been loaded with chloride so that it can be returned for use as feed stock for the chlorate cell.

 

 

In industrial situations, with adequate sensors and controls, I can see using that system. On an amateur scale, I fear the setup would cost more than the anticipated product yield.

 

This and several other reasons have caused me to stick to my decision of running the chlorate and perchlorate cells separately from each other. For potassium chlorate I run a cell utilizing MMO and CP titanium electrodes and KCl solution for the electrolyte. To produce potassium perchlorate, I've resorted to first making a dedicated sodium chlorate cell setup. Next I plan to run a perchlorate cell using sodium chlorate solution as my electrolyte (with either platinum or lead dioxide coated anodes) and convert it to impure sodium perchlorate.

 

Once I've produced the impure sodium perchlorate, I plan to remove residual chlorate by neutralizing it with SO₂ derived from sodium metabisulfite solution delivered deep into the NaClO₄ solution where it will stay in solution and break down the chlorates into soluble sodium salts, but leaving the sodium perchlorate unaltered. Next the KCl solution is introduced into the purified sodium perchlorate solution, which instantly drops out the nearly insoluble potassium perchlorate powder, which will be purified (as best as I can) of sodium contaminants and vacuum filtered, dried and then stored for future use.

 

After I get the prototype KClO₄ setup nailed down, I'll turn my focus onto other projects (sodium-free barium chlorate would be an interesting challenge! ).

 

WSM

Edited July 24, 2020 by WSM

[markx]

Soluble barium salts are quite unplesantly poisonous. In fact I happen to be very sensitive towards them.....even when I have full protective gear on when I work with them, I still develop a very characteristic "metallic" taste in my mouth. It persists for at least a few hours. I guess tiny amounts diffuse through gloves or contact skin in other ways. Even when I accidentally contact minute amounts of these compounds, I develop the very characteristic taste sensation. E.g. pick up tools that were used or place my hand on table that may have minute barium traces left over from previous work several days later. After 10-15min have passed the unmistakable sensation develops and I know that I've come into contact with a soluble Ba compound. Quite weird, but rather useful....a built in chemical contamination sensor in my body

[WSM]

Soluble barium salts are quite unplesantly poisonous. In fact I happen to be very sensitive towards them.....even when I have full protective gear on when I work with them, I still develop a very characteristic "metallic" taste in my mouth. It persists for at least a few hours. I guess tiny amounts diffuse through gloves or contact skin in other ways. Even when I accidentally contact minute amounts of these compounds, I develop the very characteristic taste sensation. E.g. pick up tools that were used or place my hand on table that may have minute barium traces left over from previous work several days later. After 10-15min have passed the unmistakable sensation develops and I know that I've come into contact with a soluble Ba compound. Quite weird, but rather useful....a built in chemical contamination sensor in my body

 

 

I've unfortunately experienced heavy metal poisoning due to casual exposure to soluble barium dust in the air (like a sudden violent flu episode at some point after the exposure). It was no fun.

 

It's not good you're so sensitive to soluble barium salts since they readily produce some very nice and easy green flames (plus white strobes, etc. etc.). I hope you find a way to safely handle it or a decent alternative is found.

 

WSM

Edited July 24, 2020 by WSM

[markx]

 

 

I've unfortunately experienced heavy metal poisoning due to casual exposure to soluble barium dust in the air (like a sudden violent flu episode at some point after the exposure). It was no fun.

 

It's not good you're so sensitive to soluble barium salts since they readily produce some very nice and easy green flames (plus white strobes, etc. etc.). I hope you find a way to safely handle it or a decent alternative is found.

 

WSM

 

I have no problem handling these compounds....I'm not sensitive in terms that minimal exposure would cause ill effects upon my health, I just have this sensitive alarm that goes off and tells me I've come into contact. So I do not have to lay off the green

[WSM]

 

I have no problem handling these compounds....I'm not sensitive in terms that minimal exposure would cause ill effects upon my health, I just have this sensitive alarm that goes off and tells me I've come into contact. So I do not have to lay off the green

 

 

That's good.

 

It seems that Ba(NO₃)₂ is one of my most sought after oxidizers, for so very many formulae. I'd be very sad if I couldn't use it.

 

WSM

[WSM]

I've been held up in progressing my high temperature sodium chlorate cell experiment. I'm using a round bottom, five liter reaction flask with a large gasketed opening.

 

I was considering how to clamp the thick PTFE lid to the glass vessel, without stressing the glass. It came to me, that, rather than clamp against the expensive borosilicate reaction flask, risking damage to it; to build a framework around the setup, allowing controllable clamping of the Teflon lid to the cell, without undue stress on the glass flask.

 

The thought occurred to me to start with a base plate using a thick, solid aluminum plate (possibly with a protective Teflon sheet over it), with four vertical threaded-rod posts, covered with PVC pipe and on top using stiff metal bars running between the vertical posts and across the Teflon lid, to clamp the whole thing together securely, without actually touching the glass cell.

 

I've drawn a diagram of the arrangement and I'm gathering materials to build a working prototype to try out. I'll photograph it as it comes together.

 

WSM

Edited August 5, 2020 by WSM

[WSM]

I believe I can use an aluminum framework to clamp the cell parts together, without worrying about corrosion because the cell framework should never come into contact with the corrosive liquids.

 

Careful consideration of the many minute details in the construction of the cell setup, is vital. I hope to share much more detail as it comes together...

 

WSM

Edited August 5, 2020 by WSM

[Arthur]

Search google for "Borosilicate reaction vessel and lid" you should see the usual spring clamp that holds the parts together., Likely the proper one is made of nickel wire but stainless may work for you, OR you could make something out of plastic.

[WSM]

Search google for "Borosilicate reaction vessel and lid" you should see the usual spring clamp that holds the parts together., Likely the proper one is made of nickel wire but stainless may work for you, OR you could make something out of plastic.

 

 

I'm aware of the traditional reaction vessel lids and the typical clamping systems, but I purchased the lower flask without the lid, deliberately.

 

My reasoning is to use a compatible polymer plate as a customizable lid for my high temperature experiments. After considering several different options, I ultimately chose a 1" thick piece of natural PTFE plate (an eBay purchase), which can handle the planned operating temperature of 110^oC. It's also easily drilled and tapped for installing various PVDF fittings to accommodate electrodes, a vent, acid injection for pH control and assorted instrumentation I desire for metering and tracking internal conditions and the progress of the cell runs.

 

I decided to use an external framework to reduce physical stresses on the borosilicate glass, rather than connect clamping structures directly on it, to avoid any physical damage. After all, 5 liter reaction vessels aren't cheap, and I prefer keep it in good condition.

 

WSM

Edited August 5, 2020 by WSM

[markx]

 

 

I'm aware of the traditional reaction vessel lids and the typical clamping systems, but I purchased the lower flask without the lid, deliberately.

 

My reasoning is to use a compatible polymer plate as a customizable lid for my high temperature experiments. After considering several different options, I ultimately chose a 1" thick piece of natural PTFE plate (an eBay purchase), which can handle the planned operating temperature of 110^oC. It's also easily drilled and tapped for installing various PVDF fittings to accommodate electrodes, a vent, acid injection for pH control and assorted instrumentation I desire for metering and tracking internal conditions and the progress of the cell runs.

 

I decided to use an external framework to reduce physical stresses on the borosilicate glass, rather than connect clamping structures directly on it, to avoid any physical damage. After all, 5 liter reaction vessels aren't cheap, and I prefer keep it in good condition.

 

WSM

My cells are composed in a similar manner with PP top and bottom plates sandwitching the main vessel in a steel framework. It is a rather convenient construction that I can reccommend. 5l borosilicate vessels can set one back quite a penny, so it makes sense to try and eliminate any undue stress on the glass heart of the contraption. Since you intend to run at relatively high temperatures it also makes sense to contemplate on thermal expansion behaviour of the setup. Reaching or departing from higher temperatures can induce extra stress in the system that might harm the reactor vessel.

 

Corrosion of the metallic components shall progress anyways as the fumes, mist and salt creep unavoidably contact the support structure at some point and turn it nice and frosty Curiously enough black oxide coating seems to endure quite well as a protection for steel components around and on the cell system. I coated my top lid fasteners (machined from medium carbon steel) in black oxide and these have been holding up in an impressive manner even by having salt creep reach the threaded parts on several runs. There is literally not a spot of rust on them where as the uncoated and galvanised parts are all nicely bearded....

Edited August 5, 2020 by markx

[WSM]

My cells are composed in a similar manner with PP top and bottom plates sandwitching the main vessel in a steel framework. It is a rather convenient construction that I can reccommend. 5l borosilicate vessels can set one back quite a penny, so it makes sense to try and eliminate any undue stress on the glass heart of the contraption. Since you intend to run at relatively high temperatures it also makes sense to contemplate on thermal expansion behaviour of the setup. Reaching or departing from higher temperatures can induce extra stress in the system that might harm the reactor vessel.

Corrosion of the metallic components shall progress anyways as the fumes, mist and salt creep unavoidably contact the support structure at some point and turn it nice and frosty Curiously enough black oxide coating seems to endure quite well as a protection for steel components around and on the cell system. I coated my top lid fasteners (machined from medium carbon steel) in black oxide and these have been holding up in an impressive manner even by having salt creep reach the threaded parts on several runs. There is literally not a spot of rust on them where as the uncoated and galvanised parts are all nicely bearded....

 

 

In my previous sodium chlorate experiments, I was able to almost completely eliminate salt creep through engineering controls (proper sealing techniques and a vapor capture scheme that eventually worked correctly). I intend to repeat those controls and step up the parameters to accommodate the expected additional stresses due to the higher temperatures.

 

Your mention of thermal expansion has me thinking of an alternative method to handle it. My original plan is to use a Viton, tubular seal in the gasket groove on the sealing edge of the Reaction vessel top flange. The thought is that by using a minimal clamping force, enough of the tubular shape may remain to allow for adequate compression during any expected expansion of the glassware.

 

Upon further consideration, I may add opposing thin Belleville washers (preferably stainless steel) to the top clamping structure to relieve any vertical expansion encountered without loss of the original clamping tension; a spring, if you will. I expect such a setup will still protect the glassware without removing the edge seal, and help to prevent salt creep from the edges of the glass-Teflon junction.

 

Using PVDF compression fittings on the cell lid will also work wonders to prevent salt creep on the top lid connections of the cell.

 

When I complete my searches for the remaining components, I'll build my prototype frame and set it up on the cell jar. I'm keeping the 5 liter vessel in the heating mantle for cushioned support. I may build a separate bottom support later in the development of this system.

 

WSM

Edited August 10, 2020 by WSM

[WSM]

I have some 316 stainless steel components ordered which should arrive tomorrow.

 

More later...

 

WSM

[Arthur]

Saw some 24/40 teflon thermometer fittings on Ebay today.

[WSM]

 

 

Today has rewarded me with the arrival of some PVDF plugs in 1/4", 1/2" and 3/4" NPT.

 

I also received the "all-thread" rods in 1/4-20 and 5/16-18 sizes plus matching hex nuts and flat washers, all in 316 grade stainless steel, which is highly corrosion resistant. My plan is to mount four of the rods vertically on the aluminum base plate, surrounding the heating mantle which is serving as a cushioned support for the round bottomed 5 liter reaction flask.

 

The plan is to have horizontal metal bars run across the top of the Teflon plate, securing the plate to the top of the flask (with a spring loaded compression setup on the top of these rods), against the O-ring gasket in the groove of the flask's flange. This arrangement is designed to hold the PTFE lid of the cell securely in place without undue stress on the borosilicate glass vessel, which is the heart of the whole high-temperature sodium chlorate cell experiment.

 

I'm thinking of covering the metal all-thread with PVC pipe so the threads will be covered, and the length of the PVC will help keep the PTFE lid from bending by supporting it from underneath (which will also keep the lid pressure even on the glass vessel).

 

Once this is all set up, the next step is to bore and tap the PTFE lid for the various PVDF fittings which will be used to connect all the required equipment to the cell. After that, the cell will be ready for the initial test run.

 

I still need to design and build the proper sized electrodes for this prototype cell, so it will run hot enough as well as be large enough to be highly productive in producing sodium chlorate. Again, my goal is to make a large enough supply of sodium chlorate, that I can run all of my perchlorate experiments from the same batch of chlorate.

 

WSM

Edited August 7, 2020 by WSM

[WSM]

This past weekend, I began the design and layout of the framework pieces.

 

I have a black anodized aluminum base plate which is 10" x 21" x 3/4". I intend to drill and tap four 1/4-20 holes (when I decide exactly where to put them) for the vertical 316 SS All-Thread rods. These will be the vertical supports for the framework. I plan to cover these vertical supports with 1/2" PVC pipe to cover the metal threads, to protect my hands and the various cell structural components, as well as assorted tubing and wiring.

 

I'm still trying to decide a few exact details before I commit to drilling and assembling the framework. Once I figure out these details, the assembly should progress fairly quickly.

 

As to the PTFE lid, the opening of the reaction flask is about 5.75" and I need to carefully plan and design how I'll populate it, so all the parts will fit without interfering with each other. I'm using a 1/4" OD Viton tube O-ring in the flange groove of the glass vessel, to seal the cell lid and help prevent salt creep from that junction.

 

The vent system needs to be carefully designed so all the massive amounts of water vapor will escape without carrying electrolyte particles with it. I'll likely use a trap of some type to separate the liquids from the gasses in the venting system. I need it to be free flowing at 1 atmosphere so no back pressure will build in the cell (exacerbating the salt creep problems). Whether I attempt to condense and reuse the water vapor remains to be seen (maybe, who knows. We'll see...).

 

It's exciting to make some progress after all this time. I'm looking forward to continuing my research...

 

WSM

[Japanese]

Has anyone ever made AP before? I made it by reacting sodium perchlorate with ammonium chloride, but after a few days it turned yellow and released maybe chlorine gas. I'm very confused.Please give me some advice.